In British English, “Practice” is a noun.
e.g. A doctor works at a “Doctor’s Practice”.
“Practise” is a verb.
e.g. “I practise English every day because I want to move to England.”
Showing posts with label English grammar. Show all posts
Showing posts with label English grammar. Show all posts
Wednesday, 22 February 2012
Desert or Dessert?
This is difficult because the words look and sound similar. But remember, there is a huge difference between the “Desert” and “Dessert”.
Desert = Sand, Dry Land, No Water, Hot, Too Much Sun!
Dessert = Tasty Cakes, Chocolate Pudding, Ice-Cream, Sugary Food!
NB – A good way to remember which is which, is to remember there are 2 “s” in Dessert, because it is delicious and you want more!
Desert = Sand, Dry Land, No Water, Hot, Too Much Sun!
Dessert = Tasty Cakes, Chocolate Pudding, Ice-Cream, Sugary Food!
NB – A good way to remember which is which, is to remember there are 2 “s” in Dessert, because it is delicious and you want more!
Parents or Fathers?
In many Latin languages, the mother and father are titles as “fathers”. This dates back many many years and is completely normal in Spanish.
But remember, in English, a father is a father and a mother is a mother. Together, they are “parents”.
It is a mistake we hear all the time and it is an easy error to correct. Just remember not to speak spanglish!
But remember, in English, a father is a father and a mother is a mother. Together, they are “parents”.
It is a mistake we hear all the time and it is an easy error to correct. Just remember not to speak spanglish!
Choose Vs Chose
Because choose and chose sound so similar, it is often difficult to remember which is the past tense version.
Just remember that “choose” is the present and future, and it has 2 “Os”. One “O” for the present and one “O” for the future.
e.g. “Today I will choose which university I will go to”
e.g. “Tomorrow I will choose which book to read”
The past only has one “O”.
e.g. “Yesterday I chose a book to read, it’s great!”
e.g. “Last year I chose a film to watch but it was terrible”
Just remember that “choose” is the present and future, and it has 2 “Os”. One “O” for the present and one “O” for the future.
e.g. “Today I will choose which university I will go to”
e.g. “Tomorrow I will choose which book to read”
The past only has one “O”.
e.g. “Yesterday I chose a book to read, it’s great!”
e.g. “Last year I chose a film to watch but it was terrible”
Too VS To
This is another common problem and people often get the two confused.
Too
“Too” can be used to express “an excess”.
e.g. “I have drank too much coffee”. This expresses that somebody has drank an excess of coffee.
“I am too tired to go to the gym”
To
“To” is usually used with a verb.
e.g. “I am going to france”
“I like to read”
“I want to run”
Too
“Too” can be used to express “an excess”.
e.g. “I have drank too much coffee”. This expresses that somebody has drank an excess of coffee.
“I am too tired to go to the gym”
To
“To” is usually used with a verb.
e.g. “I am going to france”
“I like to read”
“I want to run”
Your / You’re Your / You’re
My friends on Facebook, many of which speak English as their first and only language, always get this wrong and it’s really frustrating. Although I must say, I used to make this mistake too.
Your = Possessive
“Your” means “belonging to you”.
e.g. “This is your jacket”
“You’re” = “You are”
e.g. “You’re the best friend I have ever had”
NB When you see people write: “This is you’re jacket”, they are saying “This is you are jacket”. You can see the mistake! Don’t forget, in English, the apostrophe often indicates an abbreviation
Your = Possessive
“Your” means “belonging to you”.
e.g. “This is your jacket”
“You’re” = “You are”
e.g. “You’re the best friend I have ever had”
NB When you see people write: “This is you’re jacket”, they are saying “This is you are jacket”. You can see the mistake! Don’t forget, in English, the apostrophe often indicates an abbreviation
Saturday, 4 February 2012
Advance Grammer!
What is grammar?
Grammar drived from Greek
“grammatike” meaning “to
write”
- Kinds of grammar:
Prescriptive grammar: to be
phrased as prohibition -
standard grammar
Descriptive grammar: to describe
the grammatical system of a
language (e.g to describe how to
play football: using a ball, hand
and a basket...)
- Grammar development:
• Traditional grammar: grammar
teaching at school, parts of
speech, The traditional
categories
• Immediate constituents: using
techniques for displaying
sentence structure is the use of
immediate constituent (IC)
analysis
• Phrase structures and
transformational grammar:
- Phrasal structure: the division
of a sentence into parts, or
constituents, and the division of
those constituent into subparts.
- the transformational rules can
be informally thought of as an
instruction to change one
structure to another
• Functional grammar: showing
grammar communicating
meaning in social interaction.
Grammar
Open class items
• It conveys content words
(lexical words).
• Too many of them, can not
count them - the number of this
class is unlimited.
• Two members can go together
- the members of this class do
not exclude each other.
• Can always create new
members. Closed system items
• It conveys function words.
• Can count them - the number
of them is limited.
• Two members cannot go
together - the members of this
class exclude each other.
• Can never create new
members.
Example:
a car
N
act (v) actor (n)
actress (n) action (n)
activity (n) active (a)
actively (adv)
a school-girl (n)
new-born (adj)
good-looking (a)
Ex.: 12 a car
- one/ indefinite
- in general
- In particular
a/ my/ this/ the car
1, Is it right to say that right
wrongs no man?
2, One can not right all the
wrongs in the world.
3, Cure that cold with a drink of
hot lemon before you go to bed.
4, Drink this quick! Don’t let it get
cold.
5, Before the fire, there had been
a plague, the like of which had
not been known before and has
not been seen since.
6, It is a common failing to
suppose we are not like other
men, that we are not as other
people are.
7, As your doctor, I must warn
you that the results of taking this
drug may be very serious.
8, Growth in weight results in the
development of muscles and fat.
9, Warm pan, sift dry ingredients
and stir well.
10, Dry hair thoroughly with
warm towel and comb.
Unit 1 - Phrases – clauses -
sentences
1..PHRASES
1.1. Definition
A group of one or more than one
words, equivalent to a part of
speech.
A phrase consists of (Pre-
modification) + Head + (Post-
modification)
1.2. Kinds of phrase: 5
a, Noun phrase (NP): a phrase in
which there is a noun as a head
girls
N head
a beautiful girl
premod. N head
a beautiful girl in the class
premod. N head postmod.
b, Adjective phrase (Adj.P): a
phrase in which there is an
adjective as a head
beautiful
Adj. head
more beautiful than I am
premod. Adj. head postmod.
c, Adverb phrase (Adv.P): a
phrase in which there is an
adverb as a head
slowly
Adv head
more slowly than I did
premod. Adv head postmod.
d, Prepositional phrase (Pre.P):
in the class
pre. NP
a noun phrase dominated by a
preposition
e, Verb phrase (VP): a group of
one or more than one verbs in
which there is a verb as a head.
- Structurally, there are 2 kinds of
VP:
VP Finite VP ‘To’ Inf.NFVP
Nonfinite VP: - Infinitive NFVP
Bare Inf.NFVP
- -Ing participle NFVP
- -Ed participle NFVP
• Finite verb phrase: a verb
phrase whose verb element
agrees with the subject in
person and number.
He is a student.
3rd person, sing. 3rd person,
sing.
FVP – simple
I have learnt English.
FVP - complex
• Non – finite verb phrase: a
verb phrase whose verb element
does not agree with the subject
in person and number.
- Infinitive non-finite verb
phrase:
+ “To” infinitive non-finite verb
phrase: To learn English is
difficult.
+ Bare infinitive non-finite verb
phrase: Run away is what I could
do then.
- -Ing participle non-finite verb
phrase: My duty is learning
English.
- -Ed participle non-finite verb
phrase: Asked a lot of questions,
she was tired.
Finite VPs
• Finite VPs (V, V-s & V-ed1, etc.)
have tense and mood of a
certain type.
They go there very often.
He goes there twice a week.
(Tense: past; mood : indicative)
We went there yesterday.
(Tense: past; mood : indicative)
• Finite VPs often have their own
subject.
If she liked, she could go.
S + V-ed1
• Finite VPs often appear in the
simple, compound or complex
sentence (making up finite
clauses)
Non-finite VPs
• Non-finite VPs (to V, V-ing & V-
ed2) do not have tense and
mood.
They want to go there then. She
enjoyed watching TV.
Can be used either with Present
or Past tense)
• Non-finite VPs may have but
more often do not have their S.
For him to go there is difficult.
S + to infinitive
• Non-finite VPs often perform
the function of S, O, C or A of the
main finite clause and make up
the complete complex sentence.
2. CLAUSES
2.1 Definition a part of a
sentence, conveying an
independent supposition
2.2. Clause elements : S,V,O,C,A
a. Object: - Direct object (Od.): I
like him.
S V Od
- Indirect object (Oi) + Od: I gave
him a book.
S V Oi Od
b. Complements:
- Subject complement (Cs): to
describe or indicate the
characteristics or feature of the
subject - after copular verbs (link
verbs)
+ BE group: be, appear, seem,
feel, look, see, sound, smell,
taste…, expressing the current
attribute:
He appears tired.
S V Cs
+ BECOME group: become, come,
get, go, grow, turn,…, expressing
the resulting attribute:
He becomes famous.
S V Cs
- Object complement (Co): to
describe or indicate the
characteristics or features of the
object:
She painted the door red.
S V Od Co
He drove me mad.
They elected him chairman.
I have my car repaired.
I saw her sleeping in the garden.
He made me cry.
They found her a good wife.
S V Oi Co
They found him a good wife.
S V Oi Od
They found a good wife for him.
He gave a book to me.
- Adjective complements (Cadj.)
I’ m happy to meet you.
S V Cs Cadj.
- Prepositional complement
(Cpre.)
She is interested in making up all
day.
S V Cs Cadj.
- Adverbials:
+ Semantically: adverb of time,
place and process (manner)
He worked hard at school then.
S V Amanner Aplace Atime
+ Functionally: 3 kinds
Adjuncts: integrated in the
structure of the clause
He worked carefully.
S V A adjunct (How)
Disjuncts: peripheral to the
structure of the clause
Carefully, he worked .
A disjunct S V
(generally speaking, in fact, to be
honest, to tell the truth…)
Conjuncts: peripheral to the
structure of the clause and
connective function
Secondly, you have to learn
French.
A conjunct S V Od
(finally, on the other hand, in
brief, that’s why, in other words,
in addition, moreover, in
conclusion, what’s more, further
more...)
Ex. 5, 7
2.3 Classification
a, According to usage: 2
- Independent clause:
+ Simple sentence : Tom saw
Mary.
+ Compound sentence: Tom saw
Mary and he ran away.
+ Complex sentence: When Tom
saw Mary, he ran away.
+ Dependent clause: When he
saw Mary, he ran away.
b, According to clause elements
and verb complementation: 7
kinds
S, V, O, C, A
SV
SVA
SVC
SVO
SVOA
SVOC
SVOO
- S + V(intransitive) : He has
arrived.
- S + V(intensive) + Adverb : He is
in the garden.
- S + V(intensive) + Cs : He looks
tired.
- S + V(mono transitive) + Od : I
love you.
- S + V(complex transitive) + O +
A : They put him in a good
position.
- S + V(complex transitive) + Od +
Co : He made me happy.
- S + V(di transitive)+ Oi + Od : He
gave me his book.
INTENSIVE
V intransitive
EXTENSIVE mono-transitive
transitive di-transitive
complex transitive
Ex. 98
c, According to Verb phrase
structures (Structural
classification): 3
Finite clause
Infinitive “to” inf. NFC
Cl Non-finite clause bare inf. NFC
-Ing participle NFC
- Ed participle NFC
Verbless
C1, Finite clauses: a clause whose
verb element is a finite verb
phrase.
He is a student.
FCl.
C2, Non – finite clauses: a clause
whose verb element is a non -
finite verb phrase.
- Infinitive NFC:
+ “To” infinitive non – finite
clause:
To learn English is difficult.
+ Bare infinitive non – finite
clause:
All I did was hit him on his head.
-Ing participle non – finite clause:
The teacher being ill, we missed
our lesson.
- Ed participle non – finite clause:
Given a beautiful present, she
was happy.
His job finished, he went home.
C3, Verbless clause: a clause
whose verb element is absent
He went to bed angry.
verbless
ß> When he was angry, he went
to bed.
She stayed at home jobless.
ß> Because she was jobless, she
stayed at home.
Ex: 11
d, According to syntactic
function of the clauses: 2
- Independent clauses (main/
super ordinate) :
He ran away when I turned out.
- Dependent clauses (sub-clause/
subordinate)
What he wants is what I want.
Functionally : I think that you can
do it if you try.
c
b
a
‘a’ is the superordinate to ‘b’ or
‘c’ is the subordinate to ‘b’
‘b’ is the superordnate to ‘c’ ‘b’ is
the subordinate to ‘a’
Structurally:
FCl
FCl
FCl
Cl.elements + V.complementation:
s v
S V O A
e, According to the syntactic
functions of sub-clauses: 4 kinds
- Nominal clauses: (S, O, C)
What I want is not what he
wants.
I wonder whether he’ll come or
not.
I know you are rich.
I enjoy listening to music.
I want to learn English.
- Relative clauses:
The man who was standing at
the door is my brother.
Defining relative clause
- Comment clauses:
Generally speaking, he is honest.
- Adverbial clauses:
After having breakfast, he went
to school.
Ex: 4, 6
Chart of clauses classification
3. SENTENCES
3.1. Definition
An English sentence must have
the subject that governs the
verb and a finite verb phrase.
3.2. Sentence elements
1. Traditional classification:
Subject + Predicate
2. Modern classification: S-V-O-C-
A
Obligatory: 7 pattern clauses
Optional: Adverb of place/time
She went to London last Sunday.
Aplace Atime
The plane took off immediately.
Ex: 99
3.3. Classification
a. According to communicative
functions (purposes of
utterances): 4
a. Statements (Declarative):
usually with the word order: S-V
- Affirmative: I’ll speak to him
tonight. (+)
- Negative: I won’t speak to him.
(-)
b. Questions (Interrogative):
Normally with the inversion of
the first auxiliary verb or modal
verb - called the operator - and
the subject.
Do you like cat?
Op S
Questions are sentences marked
by one or more of these three
criteria:
- The placing of the operator in
front of the subject (S-operator
inversion):
Do you like coffee?
- The initial positioning of an
interrogative or “Wh-” element:
What do you like?
- Rising intonation: You know
him?
Ex: 15
c. Commands (imperative):
sentences which have no overt
grammatical subject and whose
verb element is in imperative
V
Don’t + V
- Without subject: Be careful.
Don’t be silly.
- With subject: Someone open
the door.
Don’t someone open the door.
- With ‘let’ Let’s go.
Let him know.
Don’t let him go.
Let him not go.
Ex: 118
d. Exclamations: sentences which
have an initial phrase introduced
by “what” or “how” without the
inversion of subject and
operator.
How + adj/adv + S + V! How
beautiful she is!
What +NP + S +V! What a
beautiful girl she is!
Sometimes, we have verbless
utterances in exclamation (in
spoken language)
b. According to their structures:
I like you.
FCl
I told him this but he didn’t
believe me.
1st indep. cl. 2nd indep. cl.
I know that you’re honest.
__ S V C = sub. clause
S V O = main clause
Grammar drived from Greek
“grammatike” meaning “to
write”
- Kinds of grammar:
Prescriptive grammar: to be
phrased as prohibition -
standard grammar
Descriptive grammar: to describe
the grammatical system of a
language (e.g to describe how to
play football: using a ball, hand
and a basket...)
- Grammar development:
• Traditional grammar: grammar
teaching at school, parts of
speech, The traditional
categories
• Immediate constituents: using
techniques for displaying
sentence structure is the use of
immediate constituent (IC)
analysis
• Phrase structures and
transformational grammar:
- Phrasal structure: the division
of a sentence into parts, or
constituents, and the division of
those constituent into subparts.
- the transformational rules can
be informally thought of as an
instruction to change one
structure to another
• Functional grammar: showing
grammar communicating
meaning in social interaction.
Grammar
Open class items
• It conveys content words
(lexical words).
• Too many of them, can not
count them - the number of this
class is unlimited.
• Two members can go together
- the members of this class do
not exclude each other.
• Can always create new
members. Closed system items
• It conveys function words.
• Can count them - the number
of them is limited.
• Two members cannot go
together - the members of this
class exclude each other.
• Can never create new
members.
Example:
a car
N
act (v) actor (n)
actress (n) action (n)
activity (n) active (a)
actively (adv)
a school-girl (n)
new-born (adj)
good-looking (a)
Ex.: 12 a car
- one/ indefinite
- in general
- In particular
a/ my/ this/ the car
1, Is it right to say that right
wrongs no man?
2, One can not right all the
wrongs in the world.
3, Cure that cold with a drink of
hot lemon before you go to bed.
4, Drink this quick! Don’t let it get
cold.
5, Before the fire, there had been
a plague, the like of which had
not been known before and has
not been seen since.
6, It is a common failing to
suppose we are not like other
men, that we are not as other
people are.
7, As your doctor, I must warn
you that the results of taking this
drug may be very serious.
8, Growth in weight results in the
development of muscles and fat.
9, Warm pan, sift dry ingredients
and stir well.
10, Dry hair thoroughly with
warm towel and comb.
Unit 1 - Phrases – clauses -
sentences
1..PHRASES
1.1. Definition
A group of one or more than one
words, equivalent to a part of
speech.
A phrase consists of (Pre-
modification) + Head + (Post-
modification)
1.2. Kinds of phrase: 5
a, Noun phrase (NP): a phrase in
which there is a noun as a head
girls
N head
a beautiful girl
premod. N head
a beautiful girl in the class
premod. N head postmod.
b, Adjective phrase (Adj.P): a
phrase in which there is an
adjective as a head
beautiful
Adj. head
more beautiful than I am
premod. Adj. head postmod.
c, Adverb phrase (Adv.P): a
phrase in which there is an
adverb as a head
slowly
Adv head
more slowly than I did
premod. Adv head postmod.
d, Prepositional phrase (Pre.P):
in the class
pre. NP
a noun phrase dominated by a
preposition
e, Verb phrase (VP): a group of
one or more than one verbs in
which there is a verb as a head.
- Structurally, there are 2 kinds of
VP:
VP Finite VP ‘To’ Inf.NFVP
Nonfinite VP: - Infinitive NFVP
Bare Inf.NFVP
- -Ing participle NFVP
- -Ed participle NFVP
• Finite verb phrase: a verb
phrase whose verb element
agrees with the subject in
person and number.
He is a student.
3rd person, sing. 3rd person,
sing.
FVP – simple
I have learnt English.
FVP - complex
• Non – finite verb phrase: a
verb phrase whose verb element
does not agree with the subject
in person and number.
- Infinitive non-finite verb
phrase:
+ “To” infinitive non-finite verb
phrase: To learn English is
difficult.
+ Bare infinitive non-finite verb
phrase: Run away is what I could
do then.
- -Ing participle non-finite verb
phrase: My duty is learning
English.
- -Ed participle non-finite verb
phrase: Asked a lot of questions,
she was tired.
Finite VPs
• Finite VPs (V, V-s & V-ed1, etc.)
have tense and mood of a
certain type.
They go there very often.
He goes there twice a week.
(Tense: past; mood : indicative)
We went there yesterday.
(Tense: past; mood : indicative)
• Finite VPs often have their own
subject.
If she liked, she could go.
S + V-ed1
• Finite VPs often appear in the
simple, compound or complex
sentence (making up finite
clauses)
Non-finite VPs
• Non-finite VPs (to V, V-ing & V-
ed2) do not have tense and
mood.
They want to go there then. She
enjoyed watching TV.
Can be used either with Present
or Past tense)
• Non-finite VPs may have but
more often do not have their S.
For him to go there is difficult.
S + to infinitive
• Non-finite VPs often perform
the function of S, O, C or A of the
main finite clause and make up
the complete complex sentence.
2. CLAUSES
2.1 Definition a part of a
sentence, conveying an
independent supposition
2.2. Clause elements : S,V,O,C,A
a. Object: - Direct object (Od.): I
like him.
S V Od
- Indirect object (Oi) + Od: I gave
him a book.
S V Oi Od
b. Complements:
- Subject complement (Cs): to
describe or indicate the
characteristics or feature of the
subject - after copular verbs (link
verbs)
+ BE group: be, appear, seem,
feel, look, see, sound, smell,
taste…, expressing the current
attribute:
He appears tired.
S V Cs
+ BECOME group: become, come,
get, go, grow, turn,…, expressing
the resulting attribute:
He becomes famous.
S V Cs
- Object complement (Co): to
describe or indicate the
characteristics or features of the
object:
She painted the door red.
S V Od Co
He drove me mad.
They elected him chairman.
I have my car repaired.
I saw her sleeping in the garden.
He made me cry.
They found her a good wife.
S V Oi Co
They found him a good wife.
S V Oi Od
They found a good wife for him.
He gave a book to me.
- Adjective complements (Cadj.)
I’ m happy to meet you.
S V Cs Cadj.
- Prepositional complement
(Cpre.)
She is interested in making up all
day.
S V Cs Cadj.
- Adverbials:
+ Semantically: adverb of time,
place and process (manner)
He worked hard at school then.
S V Amanner Aplace Atime
+ Functionally: 3 kinds
Adjuncts: integrated in the
structure of the clause
He worked carefully.
S V A adjunct (How)
Disjuncts: peripheral to the
structure of the clause
Carefully, he worked .
A disjunct S V
(generally speaking, in fact, to be
honest, to tell the truth…)
Conjuncts: peripheral to the
structure of the clause and
connective function
Secondly, you have to learn
French.
A conjunct S V Od
(finally, on the other hand, in
brief, that’s why, in other words,
in addition, moreover, in
conclusion, what’s more, further
more...)
Ex. 5, 7
2.3 Classification
a, According to usage: 2
- Independent clause:
+ Simple sentence : Tom saw
Mary.
+ Compound sentence: Tom saw
Mary and he ran away.
+ Complex sentence: When Tom
saw Mary, he ran away.
+ Dependent clause: When he
saw Mary, he ran away.
b, According to clause elements
and verb complementation: 7
kinds
S, V, O, C, A
SV
SVA
SVC
SVO
SVOA
SVOC
SVOO
- S + V(intransitive) : He has
arrived.
- S + V(intensive) + Adverb : He is
in the garden.
- S + V(intensive) + Cs : He looks
tired.
- S + V(mono transitive) + Od : I
love you.
- S + V(complex transitive) + O +
A : They put him in a good
position.
- S + V(complex transitive) + Od +
Co : He made me happy.
- S + V(di transitive)+ Oi + Od : He
gave me his book.
INTENSIVE
V intransitive
EXTENSIVE mono-transitive
transitive di-transitive
complex transitive
Ex. 98
c, According to Verb phrase
structures (Structural
classification): 3
Finite clause
Infinitive “to” inf. NFC
Cl Non-finite clause bare inf. NFC
-Ing participle NFC
- Ed participle NFC
Verbless
C1, Finite clauses: a clause whose
verb element is a finite verb
phrase.
He is a student.
FCl.
C2, Non – finite clauses: a clause
whose verb element is a non -
finite verb phrase.
- Infinitive NFC:
+ “To” infinitive non – finite
clause:
To learn English is difficult.
+ Bare infinitive non – finite
clause:
All I did was hit him on his head.
-Ing participle non – finite clause:
The teacher being ill, we missed
our lesson.
- Ed participle non – finite clause:
Given a beautiful present, she
was happy.
His job finished, he went home.
C3, Verbless clause: a clause
whose verb element is absent
He went to bed angry.
verbless
ß> When he was angry, he went
to bed.
She stayed at home jobless.
ß> Because she was jobless, she
stayed at home.
Ex: 11
d, According to syntactic
function of the clauses: 2
- Independent clauses (main/
super ordinate) :
He ran away when I turned out.
- Dependent clauses (sub-clause/
subordinate)
What he wants is what I want.
Functionally : I think that you can
do it if you try.
c
b
a
‘a’ is the superordinate to ‘b’ or
‘c’ is the subordinate to ‘b’
‘b’ is the superordnate to ‘c’ ‘b’ is
the subordinate to ‘a’
Structurally:
FCl
FCl
FCl
Cl.elements + V.complementation:
s v
S V O A
e, According to the syntactic
functions of sub-clauses: 4 kinds
- Nominal clauses: (S, O, C)
What I want is not what he
wants.
I wonder whether he’ll come or
not.
I know you are rich.
I enjoy listening to music.
I want to learn English.
- Relative clauses:
The man who was standing at
the door is my brother.
Defining relative clause
- Comment clauses:
Generally speaking, he is honest.
- Adverbial clauses:
After having breakfast, he went
to school.
Ex: 4, 6
Chart of clauses classification
3. SENTENCES
3.1. Definition
An English sentence must have
the subject that governs the
verb and a finite verb phrase.
3.2. Sentence elements
1. Traditional classification:
Subject + Predicate
2. Modern classification: S-V-O-C-
A
Obligatory: 7 pattern clauses
Optional: Adverb of place/time
She went to London last Sunday.
Aplace Atime
The plane took off immediately.
Ex: 99
3.3. Classification
a. According to communicative
functions (purposes of
utterances): 4
a. Statements (Declarative):
usually with the word order: S-V
- Affirmative: I’ll speak to him
tonight. (+)
- Negative: I won’t speak to him.
(-)
b. Questions (Interrogative):
Normally with the inversion of
the first auxiliary verb or modal
verb - called the operator - and
the subject.
Do you like cat?
Op S
Questions are sentences marked
by one or more of these three
criteria:
- The placing of the operator in
front of the subject (S-operator
inversion):
Do you like coffee?
- The initial positioning of an
interrogative or “Wh-” element:
What do you like?
- Rising intonation: You know
him?
Ex: 15
c. Commands (imperative):
sentences which have no overt
grammatical subject and whose
verb element is in imperative
V
Don’t + V
- Without subject: Be careful.
Don’t be silly.
- With subject: Someone open
the door.
Don’t someone open the door.
- With ‘let’ Let’s go.
Let him know.
Don’t let him go.
Let him not go.
Ex: 118
d. Exclamations: sentences which
have an initial phrase introduced
by “what” or “how” without the
inversion of subject and
operator.
How + adj/adv + S + V! How
beautiful she is!
What +NP + S +V! What a
beautiful girl she is!
Sometimes, we have verbless
utterances in exclamation (in
spoken language)
b. According to their structures:
I like you.
FCl
I told him this but he didn’t
believe me.
1st indep. cl. 2nd indep. cl.
I know that you’re honest.
__ S V C = sub. clause
S V O = main clause
Friday, 13 January 2012
The use of would,could,should.
The use of would,could,should
should
Should is used to give advice and make recommendations and to talk about obligation, duty and what is expected to happen. Reference is to the present and the future. Should is similar to must but is not as strong as must:
You should always wear a helmet when you go out cycling on busy roads.
would
If we want to talk about an unreal or unlikely situation that might arise now or in the future, we use a past tense in the if-clause and would + infinitive in the main clause. Compare the following and note that would is often abbreviated to 'd:
How would you manage, if I wasn't here to help you? ~ I'd manage somehow. I wouldn't bother to cook. I'd go out to eat or bring home a take-away. I'd ask your mother to help me with the washing and the ironing. I know she'd help me.
could
Could can be used to ask for permission, to make a request and express ability in the past. Compare the following:
Could I borrow your black dress for the formal dinner tomorrow? ~ Of course you can!
should
Should is used to give advice and make recommendations and to talk about obligation, duty and what is expected to happen. Reference is to the present and the future. Should is similar to must but is not as strong as must:
You should always wear a helmet when you go out cycling on busy roads.
would
If we want to talk about an unreal or unlikely situation that might arise now or in the future, we use a past tense in the if-clause and would + infinitive in the main clause. Compare the following and note that would is often abbreviated to 'd:
How would you manage, if I wasn't here to help you? ~ I'd manage somehow. I wouldn't bother to cook. I'd go out to eat or bring home a take-away. I'd ask your mother to help me with the washing and the ironing. I know she'd help me.
could
Could can be used to ask for permission, to make a request and express ability in the past. Compare the following:
Could I borrow your black dress for the formal dinner tomorrow? ~ Of course you can!
What is a Conjunction?
You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following example:
I ate the pizza and the pasta.
Call the movers when you are ready.
Co-ordinating Conjunctions
You use a co-ordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a co-ordinating conjunction:
Lilacs and violets are usually purple.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two nouns.
This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists, for the screenplay was written by Mae West.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two independent clauses.
Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops and swallowing goldfish.
Here the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases ("dancing on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbs describing the verb "spends."
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as," "because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating conjunction:
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After she had learned to drive."
If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause "If the paperwork arrives on time."
Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause "when his computer crashed."
Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.
In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs" is introduced by the subordinating conjunction "because."
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as," and "whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)
The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative conjunctions:
Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.
In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link the two noun phrases that act as the compound subject of the sentence: "my grandfather" and "my father".
Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.
Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello salad" and "a potato scallop."
Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law school.
Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two infinitive phrases "to go to medical school" and "to go to law school."
The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub.
In this example the correlative conjunction "not only ... but also" links the two noun phrases ("the school" and "neighbouring pub") which act as direct objects.
Note: some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as prepositions or as adverbs.
I ate the pizza and the pasta.
Call the movers when you are ready.
Co-ordinating Conjunctions
You use a co-ordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a co-ordinating conjunction:
Lilacs and violets are usually purple.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two nouns.
This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists, for the screenplay was written by Mae West.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two independent clauses.
Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops and swallowing goldfish.
Here the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases ("dancing on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbs describing the verb "spends."
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as," "because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating conjunction:
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After she had learned to drive."
If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause "If the paperwork arrives on time."
Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause "when his computer crashed."
Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.
In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs" is introduced by the subordinating conjunction "because."
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as," and "whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)
The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative conjunctions:
Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.
In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link the two noun phrases that act as the compound subject of the sentence: "my grandfather" and "my father".
Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.
Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello salad" and "a potato scallop."
Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law school.
Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two infinitive phrases "to go to medical school" and "to go to law school."
The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub.
In this example the correlative conjunction "not only ... but also" links the two noun phrases ("the school" and "neighbouring pub") which act as direct objects.
Note: some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as prepositions or as adverbs.
What Is An Adjective?
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coal mines are dark and dank.
Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.
A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.
The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.
An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb. In the sentence
My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.
for example, the adverb "intricately" modifies the adjective "patterned."
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In the sentence
Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.
for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.
Grammarians also consider articles ("the," "a," "an") to be adjectives.
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective ("my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their") is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "my" modifies "assignment" and the noun phrase "my assignment" functions as an object. Note that the possessive pronoun form "mine" is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase.
What is your phone number.
Here the possessive adjective "your" is used to modify the noun phrase "phone number"; the entire noun phrase "your phone number" is a subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun form "yours" is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.
The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.
In this example, the possessive adjective "his" modifies the noun phrase "favourite type of bread" and the entire noun phrase "his favourite type of bread" is the direct object of the verb "sold."
After many years, she returned to her homeland.
Here the possessive adjective "her" modifies the noun "homeland" and the noun phrase "her homeland" is the object of the preposition "to." Note also that the form "hers" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
We have lost our way in this wood.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "our" modifies "way" and the noun phrase "our way" is the direct object of the compound verb "have lost". Note that the possessive pronoun form "ours" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.
Here the possessive adjective "their" modifies "parents" and the noun phrase "their parents" is the object of the preposition "by." Note that the possessive pronoun form "theirs" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "its" modifies "ball" and the noun phrase "its ball" is the object of the verb "chased." Note that "its" is the possessive adjective and "it's" is a contraction for "it is."
Demonstrative Adjectives
The demonstrative adjectives "this," "these," "that," "those," and "what" are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:
When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.
In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective "that" modifies the noun "cord" and the noun phrase "that cord" is the object of the preposition "over."
This apartment needs to be fumigated.
Here "this" modifies "apartment" and the noun phrase "this apartment" is the subject of the sentence.
Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.
In the subordinate clause, "those" modifies "plates" and the noun phrase "those plates" is the object of the verb "preferred." In the independent clause, "these" is the direct object of the verb "bought."
Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.
Interrogative Adjectives
An interrogative adjective ("which" or "what") is like an interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives):
Which plants should be watered twice a week?
Like other adjectives, "which" can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. In this example, "which" modifies "plants" and the noun phrase "which plants" is the subject of the compound verb "should be watered":
What book are you reading?
In this sentence, "what" modifies "book" and the noun phrase "what book" is the direct object of the compound verb "are reading."
Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.
The indefinite adjective "many" modifies the noun "people" and the noun phrase "many people" is the subject of the sentence.
I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.
The indefinite adjective "any" modifies the noun "mail" and the noun phrase "any mail" is the direct object of the compound verb "will send."
They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.
In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun "goldfish" and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb "found":
The title of Kelly's favourite game is "All dogs go to heaven."
Here the indefinite pronoun "all" modifies "dogs" and the full title is a subject complement.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coal mines are dark and dank.
Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.
A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.
The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.
An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb. In the sentence
My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.
for example, the adverb "intricately" modifies the adjective "patterned."
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In the sentence
Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.
for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.
Grammarians also consider articles ("the," "a," "an") to be adjectives.
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective ("my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their") is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "my" modifies "assignment" and the noun phrase "my assignment" functions as an object. Note that the possessive pronoun form "mine" is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase.
What is your phone number.
Here the possessive adjective "your" is used to modify the noun phrase "phone number"; the entire noun phrase "your phone number" is a subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun form "yours" is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.
The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.
In this example, the possessive adjective "his" modifies the noun phrase "favourite type of bread" and the entire noun phrase "his favourite type of bread" is the direct object of the verb "sold."
After many years, she returned to her homeland.
Here the possessive adjective "her" modifies the noun "homeland" and the noun phrase "her homeland" is the object of the preposition "to." Note also that the form "hers" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
We have lost our way in this wood.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "our" modifies "way" and the noun phrase "our way" is the direct object of the compound verb "have lost". Note that the possessive pronoun form "ours" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.
Here the possessive adjective "their" modifies "parents" and the noun phrase "their parents" is the object of the preposition "by." Note that the possessive pronoun form "theirs" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "its" modifies "ball" and the noun phrase "its ball" is the object of the verb "chased." Note that "its" is the possessive adjective and "it's" is a contraction for "it is."
Demonstrative Adjectives
The demonstrative adjectives "this," "these," "that," "those," and "what" are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:
When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.
In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective "that" modifies the noun "cord" and the noun phrase "that cord" is the object of the preposition "over."
This apartment needs to be fumigated.
Here "this" modifies "apartment" and the noun phrase "this apartment" is the subject of the sentence.
Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.
In the subordinate clause, "those" modifies "plates" and the noun phrase "those plates" is the object of the verb "preferred." In the independent clause, "these" is the direct object of the verb "bought."
Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.
Interrogative Adjectives
An interrogative adjective ("which" or "what") is like an interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives):
Which plants should be watered twice a week?
Like other adjectives, "which" can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. In this example, "which" modifies "plants" and the noun phrase "which plants" is the subject of the compound verb "should be watered":
What book are you reading?
In this sentence, "what" modifies "book" and the noun phrase "what book" is the direct object of the compound verb "are reading."
Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.
The indefinite adjective "many" modifies the noun "people" and the noun phrase "many people" is the subject of the sentence.
I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.
The indefinite adjective "any" modifies the noun "mail" and the noun phrase "any mail" is the direct object of the compound verb "will send."
They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.
In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun "goldfish" and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb "found":
The title of Kelly's favourite game is "All dogs go to heaven."
Here the indefinite pronoun "all" modifies "dogs" and the full title is a subject complement.
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